Concepts of Graphics

Basic Concepts of Graphics

Session 1_Design Elements

All designs have certain basics elements or building blocks chosen to convey the message — beyond the actual words or photos used. The Six elements of  point,lines, shapes, mass, texture, and color are the building blocks of design for desktop publishers. Other terms which you might hear described as elements of design are form, space, and value (as in lightness or darkness of color).

Graphic design encompasses the creation of a great many types of projects but for the purposes of these lessons we're focusing on the elements of design as they apply to typical desktop publishing projects including logos, ads, brochures, business cards, newsletters, books, and to some extent, Web pages.
For our first class we'll expand on the definitions of lines, shapes, mass, texture, and color and focus primarily on learning to recognize these elements in printed materials. In subsequent classes within this course we'll cover each element in more detail with greater emphasis on the desktop publishing and software aspects of those elements.

Design Elements (Building Blocks of Design)
The first class describes the 5 elements of design:

v  Dot/Point

v  lines

v  shapes

v  mass or size

v  texture

v  color

v  form

v  space

v  value (lightness or darkness)

Also describes other elements sometimes included as basic building blocks.

Point

Even if there is only one point, one mark on a blank page there is something built into the brain that wills meaning for it, and seeks some kind of relationship or order, if only to use it as a point of orientation in relation to the outline of the page. If there are two points, immediately the eye will make a connection and "see" a line. If there are three points, it is unavoidable to interpret them as a triangle; the mind supplies the connections. This compulsion to connect parts is described as grouping, or gestalt.
Gestalt is the fundamental tool the designer or artist uses to build a coherent composition. The example of a student self-portrait seen below demonstrates how images may be built from points, with the variations in density producing the illusion of form.

he involuntary will-to-order that we impose on a collection of points can be clearly seen when we examine the series of faces presented on the right (to see the distortions properly, you will need to click on this small image to bring up the larger version). At what stage do the apparently random points of value become identifiable as a face? At what point do they become a specific face? Which of the concepts above describe how we see these images?

2_ Lines
Everyone knows what a line is, right? Look more closely at the great variety of lines, straight, curved, thick, thin, solid, and not-solid.

Use lines to:

• organize
• texturize
• guide the eye
• provide movement
• make a statement
• convey universal meanings

Keep an eye out for brochures, ads, newsletters, graphics, logos, and other print projects that include examples of lines, look for materials around you that include lines of all kinds. You'll refer to these examples in some of the lessons in this class.
In Lines Lesson 1 we'll look at what a line is and the different looks of lines. In Lines Lesson 2 we'll combine lines and see how the patterns we create convey different ideas. Then in Lines Lesson 3 we'll look at how lines are used in design and some practical uses of lines in common desktop publishing projects.

Line Patterns
Lines are often found in pairs or groups. Lines of the same general appearance or lines that are quite different can form a variety of patterns that create textures, suggest movement, or lead the eye - the same as single lines.
If you aren't creating original illustrations or doing logo design, your main concern with this part of the study of lines is being able to recognize these patterns in the illustrations you may select for your work and understand how these patterns may or may not project the image you want for your project. These bits of line patterns illustrate static, dynamic, and random use of lines.

Upper Left: Uniform vertical black and white lines alternate at even intervals. Static. Orderly. Conservative.
Upper Right: Uniform horizontal black lines are widely, but evenly spaced. Static. Stable. Orderly.
Middle Left: Uneven spacing of otherwise uniform lines creates the impression of movement. Dynamic. Orderly progression.
Middle Right: In this example the progression moves in from either side giving the illusion of roundness. Dynamic. Orderly progression. Dimension.
Lower Left: Varying line widths and distances create a random pattern. Dynamic. Chaotic. Disorderly.
Lower Right: While the uniform size and spacing of the lines in the upper examples are static, make the lines into curves and you get movement although it is a controlled movement. Dynamic. Orderly flow.
Hands-On Exercise
Look at ads, magazines, brochures, logos, and other printed projects and look for patterns created with two or more lines. To find examples similiar to those above, look beyond the obvious and find the lines within illustrations or used within logos. Draw your own sets of patterns using only black or white lines that illustrate static, dynamic, or random line patterns. Experiment with line width, spacing, and using horizontal, vertical, curved, and even diagonal lines.

Practical Use of Lines
Whether lines appear as part of a graphic element, such as a logo or illustration, or the lines themselves are the graphic element, such as frames and dividers, use them purposefully in the overall design.

Some ways that you might use lines in your design are to:

• Organize, connect, separate
• Create movement
• Provide texture
• Convey a mood or emotion
• Define shapes
• Provide emphasis
• Provide a frameworkThe examples below demonstrate a few of the ways lines might be used in page layout or illustration. You can probably find examples all around you as well.
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3_ Shapes
Squares (and rectangles), triangles, and circles are the three basic shapes. Examine their role in design including the psychology of shapes in logo design. Class also touches on freeform shapes.

Shape is one of the basic elements of design. Alone or in combination with other shapes or lines they can convey universal meanings as well as guide the eye or organize information. The three basic types of shapes are geometric, natural, and abstract. Geometric shapes are structured, often symmetrical shapes. These include squares, circles, and triangles but also octagons, hexagons, and cones.

Natural shapes are found in nature or they can be manmade shapes. Leaves are an example of a natural shape. An ink blob is a natural shape. Natural shapes are often irregular and fluid.
Abstract shapes are stylized or simplified versions of natural shapes. Symbols found on signs, such as the stylized wheelchair shape for handicapped access, is one example.
For the purposes of this class we'll focus on the three basic geometric shapes of squares (and rectangles), circles, and triangles but lesson 4 will also briefly address natural and abstract shapes.
Shapes
Keep an eye out for brochures, ads, newsletters, graphics, logos, and other print projects that include shapes of all kinds. You'll refer to these examples in some of the lessons in this class. Look for both items with physical shapes outside the norm (circles and triangles, especially) as well as shapes within the design used within logos or as graphic elements in the piece.
In Shapes Lesson 1 we'll look at the appearance of squares and recentanges. In Shapes Lesson 2 we'll see what a circle can do in design. Then in Shapes Lesson 3 we'll look at the use and meaning of triangles. For Shapes Lesson 4 we'll look at the practical application of squares, circles, and triangles and other natural and abstract shapes in various desktop publishing projects.
Now, on to the lessons on shape as an element of design.

Square Shapes

The square denotes honesty and stability. Squares are familiar, trusted shapes. Because the vast majority of the text we read is set in squares and rectangles, it has become familiar, safe, and comfortable.

Squares and rectangles are probably the most common geometric shapes we encounter. A few books, especially those for kids, may be cut in irregular shapes but adult (i.e. 'serious') correspondence comes in squares -- both the physical shape of the books, magazines, newspapers, and the rectangular columns of set text.
Some designers might equate square with boring. It's true that other, unexpected shapes, can grab attention better than the simple square but don't forget the importance of comfort and familiarity. Imagine how difficult it becomes to file everyday correspondence if letterhead came in a variety of triangles or freeform shapes. Try reading an entire book with all the text set in circles. Squares and rectangles definitely have a place in design.
Some ways you can use squares and rectangles:

• To symbolize honesty, stability, equality, comfort, or familiarity. It could also symbolize rigidity or uniformity.
• Related to the first bullet item, use repeating squares to suggest familiar themes (checkerboard pattern to represent a game board, the checkered flag at the end of a race, a tablecloth).
• To highlight, organize, or set apart information using a solid or outlined box.
• Use a square unexpectedly. Set a block of text in a solid or outlined but tilted box — with or without also tilting the text.

Hands-On Exercise
Look at ads, magazines, brochures, logos, and other printed projects and try to find as many different examples of square and rectangular shapes. It won't be difficult. Now, look for especially creative use of square shapes. Rectangles are more common than perfect squares. Study logo designs. Look for examples of square shapes that convey the attributes of honesty, stability, equality, comfort, or familiarity. Look for examples of 3-dimensional square shapes too such as software boxes.

Circle Shapes

Circles suggest infinity. They are also protective (think of protective encircling arms). They can also denote free movement such as a rolling ball or a more controlled movement such as a spinning globe.

Outside of logo designs, circles are less common elements of design which makes them good for grabbing attention, providing emphasis, and breaking up familiar rectangular blocks of text. You could set text in circles or simply use a circle as the background for more traditional blocks of text.
Some ways you can use circles:

• To symbolize infinity and protectiveness. Circles could also suggest something well-rounded or complete. Similar to protectiveness, circles could also imply security.
• Related to the first bullet item, use circles to suggest familiar themes (bullet holes, a stack of cannonballs, a bunch of grapes -- or just about any round fruit or vegetable, a target, the earth).
• To highlight, organize, or set apart information using a solid or outlined circle. Try a freeform circle that looks like it was drawn with a marker or pen to highlight important text.
• Replace the letter O or other 'round' letters in text with a circular shape that suggests that letter. Try an orange in the word Orange or a basketball, baseball, or soccer ball to replace an O or other letter in the nameplate of a sports newsletter.

Hands-On Exercise
Look at ads, magazines, brochures, logos, and other printed projects and try to find as many different examples of circles as you can. Look for especially creative use of circles. Study logo designs. Look for examples of circles that convey the attributes of infinity or protectiveness or circles that are suggestive of other circular objects such as the earth or a piece of fruit. Find examples of text set in a circular shape and for pieces that have been cut into circular or near circular shapes or that include circular diecuts (cut out shapes).

Triangle Shapes
Triangles suggest action. They are dynamic. Triangles may convey either conflict or strength. Triangles can direct movement (up, down, left, right — depending on which way they 'point') but rather than moving themselves, they point the way for the reader.

• To symbolize action or conflict. In a logo, a triangle might be better suited to a growing, dynamic high tech company than the more stable, familiar square, for example.
• Related to the first bullet item, use triangles to suggest familiar themes (flag, pyramid, arrow or pointer). A single or a series of triangles can point the eye to important information or act as an arrow to get readers to turn the page.
• To highlight, organize, or set apart information using a solid or outlined triangle. Use a triangle to suggest progression. Place it behind a 'Top 10' list or the steps to accomplish a specific task.
• Replace the letter A or V in text with a trianglur shape that suggests that letter. Try a wedge of pie for the letter A in the phrase Amy's Desserts.

Hands-On Exercise
Look at ads, magazines, brochures, logos, and other printed projects . Find examples of the use of triangles either in logo designs, as a shape to break up text or provide emphasis or interest, or as the physical shape of the piece. Look for creative use of triangles such as to replace letters in a nameplate or to represent familiar ideas.

Practical Use of Shapes
As with lines, whether shapes appear as part of a graphic element, such as a logo or illustration, or the shapes themselves are the graphic element, such as frames or boxes, use them purposefully in the overall design.

Some ways that you might use shapes in your design are to:

• Organize, connect, separate
• Symbolize an idea
• Create movement
• Provide texture or depth
• Convey a mood or emotion
• Provide emphasis
• Provide a framework

Geometric Shapes
In addition to the basic square, circle, and triangle discussed so far, other geometric shapes have specific meanings, some culturally-based. An octagon, especially a red one, usually means stop. A starburst is commonly used to grab attention and identify something that is new, improved, or 'on sale.'
Natural Shapes
Natural shapes can add interest and reinforce a theme. Rather than a plain box, frame text with a coiling rope or a spray of leaves or flowers. Use a freeform, non-symmetrical shape to convey a feeling of spontaneity.
Abstract Shapes
Some abstract shapes are almost universally recognized and easily 'read' even when the text is in an unfamiliar language. The stylized wheelchair, the male and female symbols for restrooms, and the jagged steps for stairs or an escalator are some examples. Icons are often abstract or stylized shapes. For example, a rectangle with a 'folded corner' often indicates a page in a document or a word processing program. A hollow circle or oval with smaller circles on the 'path' may be a literal representation of a planetary system or symbolic of a network, such as a computer network.
4. Mass
How big is it? Take a look at mass or visual weight of graphic and text elements. This class includes a large section on size and measurements for type and paper and images.

Mass and Size

Mass is one of the basic elements of design. Mass equals size. Each piece you create has a physical mass. Additionally, each element within the design (graphics, photos, lines, text blocks) have their own mass relative to the whole piece.

Part of working with mass in desktop publishing is understanding how we measure the various parts of a design such as paper, type, and images.
Mass & Size
In Mass Lesson 1 we'll look at the definition of mass and a few ways mass is incorporated into designs. In Mass Lesson 2 we'll delve more into the nuts and bolts of size such as how we specify and measure the size of type and images and how paper sizes are specified in desktop publishing. This mass and size lesson incorporates a great deal of supporting material and although it is only one lesson, it will take much longer to complete than any lessons thus far in this course.
Now, on to the lessons.

Mass equals size. Each piece you create has a physical mass. The physical mass or size is the actual dimensions of the piece — height, width, thickness/weight (of paper), and depth (3D objects).

Additionally, each element within the design (graphics, photos, lines, text blocks) have their own mass relative to the whole piece. For example, a photo that is physically 3 inches by 5 inches can appear smaller or larger depending on the physical size of the paper it is printed on and the size and proximity (closeness) of other items on the page.
Some ways to use mass within your designs:

• to accommodate information, content
  Example: To present all the desired or needed information comfortably a designer may create a bi-fold rather than the usual single business card
• to accommodate normal size restraints or expectations
  Example: The postal service has limitations on the height and width of different types of envelopes. If a designer ignores those requirements it could incur additional mailing costs for the client.
• to convey a mood or provide emphasis
  Example: A place that is physically large (such as an amusement park) or a business that offers a huge assortment of products may use brochures or other marketing pieces that are larger (physical dimensions) or heavier (weight) than normal to carry out the 'bigger' or 'more' theme.
• to create contrast
  Example: A designer might design a full-page magazine ad using a single small image in the middle of the page with lots of white space. The contrast between the size of the page and the size of the content (image) draws attention to the image and can create a specific mood (depending on other elements) such as conservative, elegant, lonely, or open.

Sometimes bigger isn't always better. Take this brochure description for example:
23 1/4 x 16 1/2 inch full color two-sided brochure (folded twice to 8 3/4 x 11 3/4 inch). This brochures opens twice and is visually packed and appears massive due to the following elements:
• It has a large physical size when opened
• It is folded down numerous times, and although the paper is thin, glossy card stock, it appears massive due to the number of layers created by the folds.
• It is densely packed (in my opinion, overwhelmingly over-packed) with bold, multicolored backgrounds and graphic elements, multicolored and shadowed text, and photographs - making it visually massive and heavy. The brochure is packed with information about the software and its applications.
I didn’t bother to look at it in any detail because the mass of it made it seem like too much work to get through. — Student ID C011409
Look at ads, magazines, brochures, logos, and other printed projects with an eye on mass. Ask yourself why each item is as large or small as it is.
Hands-On Exercise
Look for four types of material in your collected design samples:

• physically large pieces (larger than 'letter size')
• physically small pieces (business cards, small space ads, tags)
• physically large pieces that incorporate small or visually small elements and lots of white space
• physically average or small pieces that incorporate large or visually large elements

5. Texture
In addition to the actual texture of the paper we print on, look at the textures we create through techniques such as embossing and the visual texture created with certain graphics techniques.

Texture
Texture is always a part of our designs whether intentional or not. It is the visual or tactile surface characteristics of a piece.

In desktop publishing, texture comes from the paper we use. We may also add visual textures through the arrangement of lines and shapes or the use of photographic images of specific surfaces.

In Texture Lesson 1 we'll look at the paper on which most of our desktop publishing projects is printed with an eye on texture. In Texture Lesson 2 we'll discuss the use of added visual texture as an overall background and as a fill for shapes. Texture Lesson 3 covers the addition of texture through specific printing and finishing techniques such as thermography. Each lesson contains tips on using texture effectively.
Now, on to the lessons.

Paper Textures & Finishes

Paper is often something we take for granted. It's just 'there.' Sometimes we have no choice about the type of paper on which our designs are printed. Normally we can't dictate the paper used for ads in newspapers or magazines. Even when we do have a choice, we're limited by budget, printing requirements, or other factors. However, paper can be an important textural element in our desktop published documents.

Some papers just 'feel' better than others. Grab up some paper from around you. Get a newspaper, a magazine, some paper from your printer, and a few different samples from your Class Samples. Close your eyes and touch the different surfaces. Can you identify the general type of paper (newsprint, etc.) simply by touch? Probably so. But also consider how they feel to your touch — smooth, rough, slightly patterned, fuzzy, bumpy, slick, shiny, dull, warm or cold.
Familiarize yourself with some of the various surfaces and finishes used in paper. Explore each of these paper terms related to the surface charateristics and appearance of paper. Some may be familiar to you already. Others will be new.
Design Concept & Texture
Varying paper surfaces can dramatically or subtly alter the mood you want your designs to convey. An exercise from Using Design Basics To Get Creative Results by Bryan L. Peterson uses the example of a piece of jewelry placed against two totally different surfaces — a shiny tile of black Formica vs. a piece of cement.
Translate this same concept to paper and imagine a photograph of a well-preserved vintage automobile printed on extremely smooth, glossy paper or printed on a rough, pepply surface. Neither one is necessarily better or worse. It depends on the mood you want to convey. Increased contrast between the image (and it's visual texture) and the actual surface of the paper can create interest in your design.
When selecting paper, choose a texture that is related to the concept of your design and doesn't overwhelm or get in the way of the message. While you can make a bold statement with texture, sometimes a subtle texture that stays 'in the background' is most appropriate. Make sure that your texture works with your choice of type and images so that text does not become unreadable or images unrecognizable. It may be necessary to use a bolder typeface if your paper is rough or strongly patterned.
Exercise
Find four examples of textures as follows:

1. actual smooth paper
2. actual rough paper
3. visual texture (simulated fabric, stone, or even water etc. printed on the paper)
4. an example of thermography or embossing
   or, Alternately for item 3, browse the Web and find a Web page with a simulated textured background.

Separate these four (or more) examples in your Class Samples collection before going on to the next lesson.
Remember, this first set of lessons is an introduction to each of the elements of design. You'll be taking an in-depth look at texture^* and other elements in subsequent classes in this course.

Visual Textures

Texture Lesson 2

Everything around us has a texture. Sometimes we can simulate those textures with paper, but more often the textures we create in our designs are visual rather than tactile. However, those visual textures can be just as provocative or full of meaning as actual textures we can touch.

It's extremely easy to find or create visual textures for your designs. There are four basic ways to incorporate visual texture.

1. Objects within a photograph

Textures: fairly smooth surface of the chalk; rough surface of the cement

Textures: smooth glass bottles; fabric of the potholders

Textures: worn wooden mallet; grass
Images created with photo-editing software
these textures may mimic actual textures or be imagined textures

Texture: mimics drapes or folds in a satiny fabric

Texture: simulates a rough, rocky surface

Texture: random soft circles create an imaginary texture

2. Digitized images of actual textures
   (from scans, digital photos)

Texture: a straw mat

Texture: piece of door mat made from old tires

Texture: tree bark

3. Symbolic textures created with lines or shapes
   these patterns suggest various textures and are similar to the use of symbols or icons to represent ideas or objects

Texture: wavy lines could symbolize water, waves, rolling terrain

Texture: overlapping circles give the look of fish scales

Texture: a grid of lines could simulate plaid or linen fabrics, wire mesh, or other textures

You can enhance or alter the appearance of visual textures depending on the actual texture of the paper used. Keep this interaction in mind when using texture. While you can easily simulate a rough texture on smooth paper, using a 'slick' visual texture on some rough papers changes the visual appearance.
As with paper textures, choose textures that relate to the concept of the piece and are appropriate to the design. Just as some paper textures can interfere with the readability of text, so can visual textures used as backgrounds. Use caution when placing text over heavy or busy visual textures.

6. Color
What is the meaning of red? Which colors go well together? Color symbolism and association is the primary focus of this class. It also touches briefly on the mechanics of color reproduction on the Web and in print.
Color is not essential to a good design. Black and white and shades of gray can create 'color' that is just as effective as reds, blues, and greens. However, color is an added dimension that can evoke moods and make powerful statements when used wisely.
In Color Lesson 1 we'll look at value - an element found in all designs. In Color Lesson 2 we'll briefly discuss the technical aspects specifying and printing of color. Color Lesson 3 covers the selection of color and color schemes. Each lesson contains tips on using color effectively. This is a basic course on color as an element of design.
Now, on to the lessons.

Color Lesson 1

Value is present in all design. It is the lightness or darkness of an object, regardless of color. Value is relative to the background color and other items on the page.

Use value to:
• Increase/Decrease Contrast
The greater the difference in value between an object and its background, the greater the contrast

Choose the value that creates the amount of contrast and effect that you want for your design. In the above examples, the lighter value recedes into the light background. The design with the greatest contrast makes the darker object more dominant.
• Create Movement
Objects of the same value create a static design with all objects equal in visual importance. Introducing varying values gives the page a more dynamic appearance and creates a 'pecking order' among the objects. Some stand out while others recede.

Mix elements of different values to add visual movement to your design or to create a hierarchy of importance.
• Lead the Eye
By creating a pattern of dark to light values, even when the objects are equal in shape and size, it leads the eye in the direction of dark to light.

In the above example, the first set of all dark lines are static. The middle example leads the eye in a downward direction (dark to light). Reversing the values of the lines leads the eye upward.
Use color to change the effect of value:
Color has the power to override the effects of value. In a high contrast black & white design, introducing a single, small bit of color will change the focus and balance of the design.

The eye is drawn to that spot of color even if other elements are designed to draw the eye in some other direction or the objects are otherwise equal. That's the power of color.
Hands-On Exercise
Look at brochures, books, ads, business cards, and other print projects and find two to three samples that illustrate the use of value to create contrast (either high contrast or low contrast) and to create random or directed (leading) movement. For each sample, look at the purpose and focus of the piece and decide if, in your opinion, the use of value
1) causes elements of the design to stand out or recede;
2) directs the eye to specific information; or,
3) creates a mood (Describe that mood. Is it quiet elegance, high tech, or playful? Is it high energy or calm and soothing?)
With paper and pencil or in your favorite graphics program, experiment with using value. Draw simple shapes such as circles and squares. Place objects of light to dark on light and dark backgrounds. Mix objects of different values and create static and dynamic groupings. Experiment with using light type on dark backgrounds. Which combinations of light and dark values are easiest to read?
Draw a pattern of uniform black squares or circles on a piece of white paper. Now draw that same pattern but make one of the circles or squares red — just one. How does it change the overall effect?
Technical Aspects of Color

Color Lesson 2

Before you can go choosing red over blue or mixing light and dark colors, you need to know how color works in print and on the Web.

In the five pages of supplemental material for this lesson you'll explore color wheels, tints and shades, complementary colors, CMYK, hexidecimal numbers, and other terminology and concepts that are important both in selecting appropriate colors for your designs and for specifying those colors whether you are printing to your desktop, a commercial printer, or putting pages on the Web.
While there is a lot of material covered, color is an extremely complex topic and this lesson is only meant to get you acquainted with some basic color concepts.
• 1: Color Wheels
• 2: RGB & CMYK
• 3: Hues, tints, shades, saturation
• 4: Perception
• 5: Specifying Color

Session 2:

Principles of Graphic Design Basics (Laws of Design)

Introduction to the Principles of Design

The Big Picture
Different instructors or designers have their own idea about the basic principles of design but most are encompassed in the 6 principles of balance, proximity, alignment, repetition, contrast, and white space. Learn the definitions of each principle.

All designs have certain basic elements or building blocks chosen to convey the message — beyond the actual words or photos used. How we place those items on the page determines the structure of our designs and affects the overall readability and determines how well our design communicates the desired message. The principles of design govern that placement and structure.

Graphic design encompasses the creation of a great many types of projects but for the purposes of these lessons we're focusing on the elements and principles of design as they apply to typical desktop publishing projects including logos, ads, brochures, business cards, newsletters, books, and to some extent, Web pages.
Different instructors or designers have their own idea about the basic principles of design but most are encompassed in the 6 principles of:

• Balance
• Proximity / Unity
• Alignment
• Repetition or consistency
• Contrast
• White space

Through words and pictures, the next two lessons introduce each of these principles.
Even though no one will know whether you actually do the exercises and assignments included with each lesson and class, I strongly encourage you to do so. It will help to reinforce your understanding of each of the concepts covered throughout this Graphic Design Basics course.

Generally, all the principles of design apply to any piece you may create. How you apply those principles determines how effective your design is in conveying the desired message and how attractive it appears. There is seldom only one correct way to apply each principle.

Balance
Try walking a long distance with a 2 pound bag of rocks in one hand and a 10 pound bag of marbles in the other. After awhile you'll be wanting to shift your load around, putting a few marbles in the rock bag to balance your load, make it easier to walk. This is how balance works in design. Visual balance comes from arranging elements on the page so that no one section is heavier than the other. Or, a designer may intentionally throw elements out of balance to create tension or a certain mood.
Proximity / Unity
Observe a group of people in a room. You can often learn a lot about who is listening intently to another person, which are strangers, or who is ignoring who by how close together they sit or stand. In design, proximity or closeness creates a bond between people and between elements on a page. How close together or far apart elements are placed suggests a relationship (or lack of) between otherwise disparate parts. Unity is also achieved by using a third element to connect distant parts.
Alignment
Can you imagine how difficult it would be to find your car in a crowded parking lot if everyone ignored the parking lot stripes and parked in every which direction and angle? Imagine trying to get out of there! Alignment brings order to chaos, in a parking lot and on a piece of paper. How you align type and graphics on a page and in relation to each other can make your layout easier or more difficult to read, foster familiarity, or bring excitement to a stale design.

Repetition / Consistency
What if Stop signs came in pink squares, yellow circles, or green triangles, depending on the changing whims of a town and a few of its residents? Imagine the ensuing traffic jams and accidents. Repeating design elements and consistent use of type and graphics styles within a document shows a reader where to go and helps them navigate your designs and layouts safely.
Contrast
On the basketball court, one pro team looks much like another. But send a few of those players for a stroll down most any major city street and something becomes apparent — those players are much taller than your average guy on the street. That's contrast. In design, big and small elements, black and white text, squares and circles, can all create contrast in design.
White Space
Did you ever participate in that crazy college past time of VW Beetle stuffing? Were you ever the guy on the bottom struggling for a breath of fresh air or the last one in trying to find a place to stick your left elbow so the door will close? It wasn't comfortable, was it? Imagine trying to drive the car under those conditions. Designs that try to cram too much text and graphics onto the page are uncomfortable and may be impossible to read. White space gives your design breathing room.

Principles of Design

(Laws of Design)

 Balance

Symetrical, radial, formal, and informal ways of arranging elements on a page to achieve visual balance is the focus of this class. Also covers the 'rule of thirds' and other structural elements.

Our bodies need a balance of nutrients to keep us healthy but every now and then it's OK to feast on chocolate, ice cream, and an entire supersize bag of potato chips. Balance in design is much the same. For most of our reading our eyes and minds are most comfortable with evenly balanced layouts where the graphics don't overpower the text and the page doesn't seem to tilt to one side or the other.

Other times we crave the teetering and tottering of a page that's just a little of out of kilter or totally lopsided. But before we indulge our tastebuds, we need a good foundation in the basics of balance — what it is and how to achieve it.
The Principle of Balance
Primarily there are three types of balance in page design:

• symmetrical
• asymmetrical
• radial

Additionally, we'll discuss:

• the rule of thirds
• the visual center of a page
• the use of grids

..as we examine each type of balance and how to achieve it.

Symmetrical Balance

Balance Lesson 1

Symmetrical balance is easiest to see in perfectly centered compositions or those with mirror images. In a design with only two elements they would be almost identical or have nearly the same visual mass. If one element was replaced by a smaller one, it could throw the page out of symmetry. To reclaim perfect symmetrical balance you might need to add or subtract or rearrange the elements so that they evenly divide the page such as a centered alignment or one that divides the page in even segments (halves, quarters, etc.).

When a design can be centered or evenly divided both vertically and horizontally it has the most complete symmetry possible. Symmetrical balance generally lends itself to more formal, orderly layouts. They often convey a sense of tranquility or familiarity or elegance or serious contemplation.
See the descriptions below each of these examples that describes how symmetrical balance is achieved in each case.

Vertical Symmetry — Each vertical half (excluding text) of the brochure is a near mirror image of the other, emphasized with the reverse in colors. Even the perfectly centered text picks up the color reversal here. This symmetrically balanced layout is very formal in appearance.

Vertical & Horizontal Symmetry — This poster design divides the page into four equal sections. Although not mirror images the overall look is very symmetrical and balanced. Each of the line drawings are more or less centered within their section. The graphic (text and image) in the upper center of the page is the focal point tying all the parts together.
Hands-On Exercise
Look for examples of balanced symmetry, do these exercises and answer these questions (to yourself).

• How many examples of perfect or near perfect symmetry can you find?
• Fold a few pieces in half vertically and horizontally to look for symmetrical balance.
• Look for sections of symmetrical design within larger layouts such as a graphic, a logo.
• How is the symmetry achieved — is it through mirror images, identical placement, or with pieces that are very similar in look and feel?

Asymmetrical Balance

Balance Lesson 2

Asymmetrical design is typically off-center or created with an odd or mismatched number of disparate elements. However, you can still have an interesting design without perfect symmetry.

With asymmetrical balance you are evenly distributing the elements within the format which may mean balancing a large photo with several small graphics. Or, you can create tension by intentionally avoiding balance.

Uneven elements present us with more possibilities for arranging the page and creating interesting designs than perfectly symmetrical objects. Asymmetrical layouts are generally more dynamic and by intentionally ignoring balance the designer can create tension, express movement, or convey a mood such as anger, excitement, joy, or casual amusement.

See the descriptions below each of these examples that describes how asymmetrical balance or tension is achieved in each case.



Asymmetrical Balance - This page uses a 3 column format to create a neatly organized asymmetrical layout. The two columns of text are balanced by the blocks of color in the lower left topped by a large block of white space. In this case, because the white space is in a block shaped much like the text columns, it becomes an element of the design in its own right.

Asymmetrical/All Over Balance - It can't be neatly sliced in half like a symmetrical design but most of the elements have only small differences in shape and mass. This page achieves an overall balance by use of an underlying grid that spreads the many pieces out over the entire page, more or less evenly.

See the descriptions below each of these examples that describes how radial balance is achieved in each case.

Radial — Here we have an example of radial balance in a rectangular space. The year represents the center of the design with the subtle color sections radiating from that center. The calendar month grids and their corresponding astrological symbols are arrayed around the year in a circular fashion.

Radial — Colors and text radiate out from the apple in the middle of this CD cover design. The effect is almost one of spiralling down into the center of the apple. The apple itself looks nearly symmetrical but the curving text and the outlines edging off the page to the top and right throws it all slightly off-balance.
Hands-On Exercise
Look for examples of radial balance, do these exercises and answer these questions (to yourself).

• How many examples of radial balance can you find? It may be harder to find examples. Look to elements within other layouts such as graphic illustrations and logos that use a radial balance.
• Does the piece radiate from a central point or does it have a spiral effect?
• Does the design pull you in or send you out to the edges of the piece?

Asymmetrical Tension - Like a wild, unruly garden, the elements of this brochure cover are barely contained on the page. The plants spring up primarily along the left side but with a few stems escaping and arching across the page. The text, although randomly placed, follows the lines of the plants keeping them anchored to the overall design. The off-balance design creates a sense of freedom and movement.
Hands-On Exercise
Look for examples of asymmetrical balance, do these exercises and answer these questions (to yourself).

• How many examples of asymmetrical balance can you find?
• Examine the elements within the piece to see how the designer arranged them to achieve a balanced design without symmetry.
• Look for pieces that appear to be intentionally out of balance?
• How does the balance contribute to the mood of each piece? Is it dynamic? D

Radial Balance

Balance Lesson 3

On square and rectangular pages we generally place elements in orderly rows and columns. With radial designs the elements radiate from or swirl around in a circular or spiral path.

Parts of the design must still be arranged so that they are balanced across the width and length of the page unless you're intentionally aiming for a lack of balance.

•  oes it appear to move in a certain direction or vibrate on the pa

See the descriptions below each of these examples that describes how radial balance is achieved in each case.

Radial — Here we have an example of radial balance in a rectangular space. The year represents the center of the design with the subtle color sections radiating from that center. The calendar month grids and their corresponding astrological symbols are arrayed around the year in a circular fashion.

Radial — Colors and text radiate out from the apple in the middle of this CD cover design. The effect is almost one of spiralling down into the center of the apple. The apple itself looks nearly symmetrical but the curving text and the outlines edging off the page to the top and right throws it all slightly off-balance.
Hands-On Exercise
Look for examples of radial balance, do these exercises and answer these questions (to yourself).

• How many examples of radial balance can you find? It may be harder to find examples. Look to elements within other layouts such as graphic illustrations and logos that use a radial balance.
• Does the piece radiate from a central point or does it have a spiral effect?
• Does the design pull you in or send you out to the edges of the piece?

Rule of Thirds, Visual Center, Grids

Balance Lesson 4

Uderlying most of the layouts on the previous pages are three related aspects of page layout and balance. These are layout principles that help the designer achieve arrangements with visual balance.

Rule of Thirds and Balance
The rule of thirds says that most designs can be made more interesting by visually dividing the page into thirds vertically and/or horizontally and placing our most important elements within those thirds. Take this concept a step further, especially in photographic composition, by dividing the page into thirds both vertically and horizontally and placing your most important elements at one or more of the four intersections of those lines.

Look at these previous balance examples and see how the rule of thirds is utilized. Below: In this vertically symmetrical layout the headline appears in the upper third of the page, the logo in the middle third, and the supporting descriptive text in the lower third. The most important information is in that lower third and anchors the page.

Below: This asymmetrical layout has most elements in the upper third and leftmost third of the page with the main focal point being around the intersection of the topmost and leftmost dividing lines.

Visual Center and Balance
Placing important elements or the focal point of the design within the visual center of a piece is another design trick. The visual center is slightly to the right of and above the actual center of a page.

See how the focal or center point of each of these designs actually falls in the visual center of the page. Below: It's easy to see the actual center, it's where the four box corners meet. But the focus is on the earth.

Below: In this calendar, the months emanate from the year located front and (visual) center.

Grids and Balance
Roughly dividing a page into thirds or finding the visual center are relatively easy and you don't usually have to be exact to achieve your goals. However, constructing the underlying structure of a piece is a bit more complicated — but essential for most designs. Most balanced designs (and even unbalanced ones) rely on a grid. This invisible structure (visible while working in your page layout program) helps ensure that you place all the elements in the right location to achieve balance as well as to help with continuity and consistency of design.
Grids can be simple or complex depending on the needs of the design and the designer.
Sometimes the use of a grid is obvious. Below: This asymmetrically balanced design uses a simple three column grid to ensure that each text column is the same width and that it is balanced by the nearly empty column on the left. The grid also dictates the margins and ensures that the page number and header appear in the same place on each page.

Below: A 5x5 grid keeps this design in line. The grid is obvious along the bottom (each square equals one grid square in this layout) but it is invisibly keeping all those random letters in order in the middle.
Grids are an important tool in page layout and desktop publishing. This three-part supplemental material fully describes and illustrates the use of grids..
Hands-On Exercise
Look for examples of the use of the rule of thirds, visual center, and grids.

• Roughly divide several pieces in thirds vertically and horizontally looking for designs that seem to fall neatly into these sections. Does the main headline, focal graphic, or other key elements fall squarely within one of these thirds?
• Locate the visual center of several different pieces. How many designs put a key piece of information or focal point in this area?
• Can you 'see' the underlying grid in your samples? Find an example that appears to use a very simple grid. Find one that appears to use a more complex grid. In each case, how does the use of a grid help the designer achieve a balanced d

Proximity/Unity
Learn how to arrange elements on the page through proximity -- keeping like items together and creating unity by how close or far apart elements are from each other.

Proximity:

Observe a group of people in a room. You can often learn a lot about who is listening intently to another person, which are strangers, or who is ignoring who by how close together they sit or stand. In design, proximity or closeness creates a bond between people and between elements on a page. How close together or far apart elements are

placed suggests a relationship (or lack of) between otherwise disparate parts. Unity is also achieved by using a third element to connect distant parts.

Alignment:
While centered text has its place it is often the mark of a novice designer. Learn how to align text and graphics to create more interesting, dynamic, or appropriate layouts.

lignment is the placement of text and graphics so they line up on the page. It's one of the principles of design that help us create attractive, readable pages. Use alignment to:

• create order
• organize page elements
• group items
• create visual connections

Good alignment is invisible. Most readers won't conciously notice that everything is lined up neatly but they will feel it when things are out of alignment.
There are several types of alignment that can work together to create a pleasing layout.

• horizontal alignment
  In horizontal alignment left and right margins are exactly or visually equal. Horizontal alignment can be across the page or within columns. It doesn't necessarily mean center alignment. A block of flush left/ragged-right text can be aligned horizontally. Even though individual lines of text are not perfectly aligned on each side, careful attention to the amount of rag (white space at the end of the line) can result in a visually balanced amount of margin on each side of the block of text.
• vertical alignment
  In vertical alignment the top and bottom margins are exactly or visually equal. Vertical alignment can be the full page or within portions of the page.
• edge alignment
  Edge alignment lines up text or objects along their top, bottom, left, or right edges.
• center alignment
  Center alignment may be horiztonally or vertically aligned, or both.
• visual or optical alignment
  Visual or optical alignment fixes some of the problems that can occur with other types of alignment due to the varying shapes of letters and graphics. In visual alignment the objects may not be precisely aligned but to the eye they appear lined up.

Using Alignment
Lack of alignment creates a sloppy, unorganized look. Mixing too many alignments can have a similiar effect. However, it's also OK to break alignment when it serves a specific purpose such as to intentionally create tension or draw attention to a specific element on the page.
For simple arrangements, items can be aligned using the automatic align options in your software. For more complicated layouts the use of guidelines and grids aid in the precise placement of elements.
View these examples and discussion of alignment that show the underlying grid or guidelines that tie the elements together.Some of these examples come from reader redesigns of our
Repetition/Consistency
Get an understanding of the importance of consistency for the reader and ways to create a consistent and balanced look through different types of repetition.

Grids: Consistency & Unity
Tying Elements of a Page Design Together with Grids

For the most part, people prefer organized visual information
Newsletters, magazines, brochures, annual reports, and books often have many visual elements: columns of text, headlines, photos, illustrations, pull-quotes, etc. Grids allow the designer to build page-to-page consistency into these documents.

Readers expect to find page numbers in the same location on each page. When all the text in a given article — even when it spans several pages — has a consistent look, including column width, it enhances readability. Readers often expect to find sidebars, informational text, and other oft-repeated elements in the same place from page to page.
A grid, used consistently on all pages of a multi-page document, makes it easier for the designer to provide the consistent look that readers often expect. A carefully conceived grid system also allows the designer to introduce variations without forsaking readability or consistency. It also speeds layout because it takes the guesswork and "look back to see what we did before" out of where to place elements from one page to the next.
The pages, below, are examples of how you might combine text and graphics in a 7-unit vertical grid (such as for a newsletter). Notice how page 1 (Figure 1) and 2 have a consistent (reversed) l
ayout. Text columns are two-grid units wide. One grid unit provides an extra wide column of space separating the main text from the sidebar elements. Page 3 (right hand page of the 2 page spread, Figure 2) is quite different from the first two pages but if you look at the underlying grid struction (Figure 3) you'll see that all three pages use the same grid system.

FIGURE 1: left-hand page of newsletter with 7-unit vertical grid

FIGURE 2: two page spread of newsletter with 7-unit vertical grid

FIGURE 3: two page spread showing the underlying 7-unit vertical grid (blue)

Grids can unify a series of dissimilar documents
There are many ways to establish visual unity throughout a series of related pieces. You probably use your logo on all your marketing pieces. You may have color coded brochures for different aspects of your business. Grids are another way to bring unity and cohesiveness to a collection of brochures, sales sheets, display ads, spec sheets, and other elements of your marketing arsenal.
As we said in part 1 of this series, "In a series of single, but related pieces (such as a series of posters or information sheets for a single ad campaign or single product line) a common grid can help unify the separate pieces." Let your grid help you place repeating elements in the same place from piece to piece. Let your grid provide a consistent guide for mixing graphics and text.
The informational sheets in Figure 4 have a common style for the headline treatments but don't all use the same number or size of graphics. The 3 unit grid (Figure 5) helps to unify these pieces. This is a fairly simple, straightforward example.

FIGURE 4: 3 informational sheets that share a common 3 unit grid

FIGURE 5: A three unit grid helps unify a series of information sheets containing varied elements

One grid, many designs
Grids have been accused of creating boring, static designs. It's not the fault of the grid. Used properly, grids can offer a variety of creative design options. Figure 6, below, shows how a 4x4 (16 unit) grid system takes on different lives using the same four graphic images and varying amounts of text.

FIGURE 6: Just a few of the arrangement options using the same "boring" grid.

Contrast
Big vs. small, black vs. white. These are some ways to create contrast and visual interest. Learn a variety of ways to use contrast.

How Contrast Works

Use size, value, color, and type to create contrast

Contrast is one the principles of design. Contrast occurs when two elements are different. The greater the difference the greater the contrast. The key to working with contrast is to make sure the differences are obvious. Four common methods of creating contrast are by using differences in size, value, color, and type.

Contrast adds interest to the page and provides a means of emphasizing what is important or directing the reader's eye. On a page without contrast, the reader doesn't know where to look first or what is important. Contrast makes a page more interesting so the reader is more apt to pay attention to what is on the page. Contrast aids in readability by making headlines and subheadings stand out. Contrast shows what is important by making smaller or lighter elements recede on the page to allow other elements to take center stage.
However, contrast can be overdone. Choose carefully. If everything contrasts highly with everything else you end up with competing elements and once again the reader won't know where to look first.

1. this page
2. Contrast With Size
3. Contrast With Value
4. Contrast With Color
5. Contrast With Type
6. Use Obvious Contrasting Elements

White Space
The art of nothing is another description for this principle. View examples of good and bad use of white space and how to avoid trapped white space.

White space is an important principle of design missing from the page layouts of many novices. White space is nothing. White space is the absence of text and graphics. It breaks up text and graphics. It provides visual breathing room for the eye. Add white space to make a page less cramped, confusing, or overwhelming.

1. Increase paragraph spacing.
   Use a line of space or a deep indent (but not both) to put white space between paragraphs.
2. Increase space between columns of text.
   Alleys or gutters that are too narrow cause the eye to skip over to the next column. Put white space between columns with adequate alleys.
3. Put space at the end of lines of text.
   Use ragged-right alignment to add white space between columns and at the end of lines of text.
4. Put more space around outer edges of page.
   If space is necessarily cramped within the body of the publication, add white space with generous margins or gutters.
5. Leave more room around graphics.
   When wrapping text around graphics or wherever text and graphics meet, provide plenty of standoff white space. Don't run text right up to the edge of graphics.
6. Increase space around headlines.
   Add white space between headlines or subheads and the preceding copy and a bit below as well.
7. Increase space between lines of type and individual characters.
   Add typographic white space by increasing the leading of body text, using lighter type, avoiding letterspacing that is too tight, and avoiding unending condensed or heavy type.

Tips:

1. Keep design balanced.
   Achieve a balance of ink and white space using a mix of techniques described above, as appropriate to your design.
2. Don't go overboard.
   Avoid 'bad' white space caused by trapping space within text, rivers of white (often found with unadjusted justified type), overuse of expanded type, too wide gutters, excessive leading, and poorly kerned headlines.
3. White space is any color.
   White space isn't white, literally, unless your paper is white. If the paper is yellow, the white space is yellow. White space is simply empty space - that area devoid of text and graphics.
4. Preprinted designs need white space.
   When printing on preprinted paper that has its own obvious design elements - lines, circles, etc. that aren't simply an overall pattern blending into the background - treat those elements as if they were part of the text and graphics you are printing and allow for adequate white space around those parts of the design.